Mental Lexicon Definition and Examples in English

In psycholinguistics, a persons internalized knowledge of the properties of words. Also known as a mental dictionary. There are various definitions of mental lexicon. In their book The Mental Lexicon: Core Perspectives (2008), Gonia Jarema and Gary Libben attempt this definition: The mental lexicon is the cognitive system that constitutes the capacity for conscious and unconscious lexical activity. The term mental lexicon was introduced by R.C. Oldfield in the article Things, Words and the Brain (Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, v. 18, 1966). Examples and Observations The fact that a speaker can mentally find the word that he/she wants in less than 200 milliseconds, and in certain cases, even before it is heard, is proof that the mental lexicon is ordered in such a way as to facilitate access and retrieval.(Pamela B. Faber and Ricardo Mairal Usà ³n, Constructing a Lexicon of English Verbs. Walter de Gruyter, 1999)The Dictionary Metaphor- What is this mental dictionary, or lexicon, like? We can conceive of it as similar to a printed dictionary, that is, as consisting of pairings of meanings with sound representations. A printed dictionary has listed at each entry a pronunciation of the word and its definition in terms of other words. In a similar fashion, the mental lexicon must represent at least some aspects of the meaning of the word, although surely not in the same way as does a printed dictionary; likewise, it must include information about the pronunciation of the word although, again, probably not in the same form as an ordinary dictionary. (D. Fay and A. Cutler, Malapropisms and the Structure of the Mental Lexicon. Linguistic Inquiry, 1977)- The  human  word-store is often referred to as the mental dictionary  or, perhaps more commonly, as the  mental  lexicon, to use the Greek word for dictionary. There is, however, relatively little similarity between the words in our minds and the words in book dictionaries, even though the information will sometimes overlap. . . .[E]ven if the mental lexicon turns out to be partially organised in terms of initial sounds, the order will certainly not be straightforwardly alphabetical. Other aspects of the words sound structure, such as its ending, its stress pattern and the stressed vowel, are all likely to play a role in the arrangement of words in the mind.Furthermore, consider a speech error such as The inhabitants of the car were unhurt. where the speaker presumably meant to say passengers rather than inhabitants. Such mistakes show that, unlike book  dictionaries, human  mental dictionaries  cannot be organized solely on the basis of sounds or spelling. Meaning must be taken into consideration as well, since humans fairly often confuse words with similar meanings, as in Please hand me the tin-opener when the speaker wants to crack a nut, so must have meant nut-crackers.(Jean Aitchison,  Words in the Mind: An Introduction to the Mental Lexicon. Wiley-Blackwell, 2003)An Australians Mental LexiconEven with hard yakka, youve got Buckleys of understanding this dinkum English sentence, unless youre an Aussie.An Australian has no difficulty understanding the above sentence, while other English speakers might struggle. The words yakka, Buckleys, and dinkum are in the vocabulary of most Australians, that is, they are stored as entries in the mental lexicon, and therefore an Australian has access to the meanings of these words and can consequently comprehend the sentence. If one possessed no mental lexicon, communication through language would be precluded.(Marcus Taft, Reading and the Mental Lexicon. Psychology Press, 1991)

Paul Bernardo and Karla Homolka Canadian Rapists/Murderers

Paul Bernardo and Karla Homolka: Canadian Rapists/Murderers Paul Bernardo was a well liked child by all the parents in the neighbourhood, he was pleasant and friendly. Although, when he was a sixteen, he got into an argument with his mother and she told him about how he was a illegitimate child and showed him the picture of his real father for whom she had an affair with. Paul was devastated and after the incident he did not get along with his mother. He started to hang around a tough crowd of people, had a terrible temper and enjoyed humiliating women publicly. This later led to his abusiveness towards women. When Paul graduated from college he became a junior accountant at Prince Waterhouse. In October of 1987 he met the†¦show more content†¦Karla knew what Paul was doing and supported him. Paul and Karla had been dating for a while but he was annoyed that Karla was not a virgin when he met her and told Karla that it was her responsibility to make it possible for him to take the virginity of her younger sister Tammy, without her knowledge. Karla worked in a veterinary clinic and had knowledge of sedatives that were used to put animals to sleep before surgery, a drug called Halothane, which she decided to use. December 23,1990 was the day that they had decided that Paul should rape Tammy, so they went over to Karla’s parents, and began pouring Tammy drinks laced with the sedative and soon thereafter, she was passed out. Once Karla’s parents had gone to bed, they raped Tammy. Paul held the video camera as he raped her and Karla held a cloth with Halothane on it over her face while Paul made her perform sexual acts on her sister. Tammy suddenly vomited and before they could help her, she had choked to death. They hid all of the evidence and called an a mbulance. Karla was always concerned that she would loss Paul and was obsessed with his happiness. He would tell her that it was her fault Tammy was no longer around to fulfil his sexual pleasures. So Karla decided that for a wedding gift she would find him a young girl that he could take advantage of. She chose a young girl named Jane who resembled Tammy. Karla took Jane toShow MoreRelatedPaul Bernardo Karla Homolka1349 Words   |  6 Pagesfascination for many Canadians still to this day. Despite 20 years passing since the infamous murders occurred, there is still much debate surrounding the crimes that took place. In analyzing this crime, it can be found that there is still many grey areas to the serial murderers: Paul Bernardo and Karla Homolka. A young 17 year old girl named Karla Homolka met 23 year old Paul Bernardo at a restaurant in 1987. By late 1989 Paul and Karla were engaged as a happy couple, while Bernardo was raping numerousRead MorePlea Bargains In Canadian Law ~ Karla Homolka3099 Words   |  13 Pagesthe Karla Homolka/ Paul Bernardo case. Paul Bernardo, husband of Karla Homolka, was also known as the Scarborough rapist, and was responsible for the abduction, rape, and murder of two teenaged girls, Leslie Mahaffy and Kristen French. However at that time, between 1991 and 1992 when both girls were reported missing, police had no suspects, and no suspicion of Paul Bernardo. To the police, Karla Homolka’s testimony against her husband seemed like the perfect tool to convict a vicious murderer. What

Shakespeare - Relevance in the 21st Century free essay sample

Shakespeare is a poet and playwright that lived in the late sixteenth century and was known for writing well received plays. Even now in the twenty-first century, his plays are well known around the world. People may ask, why would a playwright from the sixteenth century still be the centre of attention in the twenty-first century? Many attributes of Shakespeare’s plays contribute to this enduring nature. One possible reason is the large spread of interpretations possible in Shakespeare’s plays. Another possible reason is the plays Shakespeare write focus on emotions that are universal to the human race. The characters in Shakespeare’s plays have very complex personalities and have a variety of interpretation. The combinations of these reasons are why Shakespeare is still popular in the current time. The plays written by Shakespeare are open to very broad interpretation mainly due to the lack of things that would be considered essential in theatre in current time [1]. We will write a custom essay sample on Shakespeare Relevance in the 21st Century or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page These things include lighting, clothing and proper casting of roles. Lighting allows for a more understanding sense of mood in a play, allowing the audience to feel the mood of the characters in the play. Clothing shows the different rankings of hierarchy in a play as well as a sense of the mood of the character that is wearing the clothes. Proper casting of rules makes the emotions and thoughts of the character easier to recognise because the audience can use stereotypes of the actors’ personalities to determine the personality of the characters they are portraying. The broad interpretations keep the interest of the audience as they can imagine the different motives and thoughts untold going through the minds of the characters. An example of the different interpretations possible in Shakespeare’s plays can be seen in how people interpret Macbeth, a famous play by Shakespeare. The monarchist reading of the play shows King Duncan, the ruler of Scotland at the time as being saintly, where all of his actions were correct and any action taken against him was considered evil [2]. Macbeth was considered a sinner destined to die from the moment he committed the grave sin of killing King Duncan in order to gain kingship. In contrast, the institutional reading puts the blame on to the system of monarchy itself, stating that it promotes the killing of higher positions in order to gain the position for the individual committing the act. The institutional reading shows the actions of Macbeth to be expected of a person teased to an extent where temptation overtakes them. The broad interpretations are one of the reasons Shakespeare is still respected in the current time. The main focuses of Shakespeare’s plays are usually universally understandable emotions that people feel [1]. These emotions include love, hate, jealousy, passion and fear. Love and hate are two emotions that exist commonly in the world. Both usually contain large amounts of interest in a person and can end up with quite extreme results in some circumstances. In Shakespeare’s plays, these emotions usually cause the death of characters. Jealousy is similar to hate but different in terms of motive. In contrast to this, Shakespeare’s plays usually have jealousy and hate hand in hand and together, cause murder and other misfortune to characters. Fear causes characters in Shakespeare’s plays to act without much prior thought or motive and can cause damage to the character along with characters that surround said character. As these emotions can be easily related to the majority of the audience, it catches and keeps the interest. An example of the universal emotions in Shakespeare’s play can be seen in the play, Macbeth. In Macbeth, the majority of the primary characters face one or more of these emotions to an extent where they commit murder or some other act of treason. An example of this is the killing of Banquo. This is an example of the emotion of fear, as his death was not one that necessarily had to happen, making it a quick judgement without much prior thinking. Macbeth ordered assassins to kill Banquo and his son in order to keep the witches’ prophecy to himself so no one suspects him of murdering King Duncan. Whether this would have affected his secret is unknown, but the deed causes Macbeth to be very guilt-ridden and eventually causes his defeat at the end of the play. Characters in Shakespeare’s plays usually have very complex personalities implied through the strange variety of their actions [1]. Characters in Shakespeare can be easily influenced by events around them. These events are normally quite traumatic to the character and cause the character to think in ways that contrast their old way of thinking. This results in actions initially unpredictable via the old characters personality. An example of this in Shakespeare’s play is shown in the play, Macbeth. In Macbeth, the protagonist Macbeth is told his future by the witches where they state that he will quickly progress through social ranks. After hearing the prophecy, Macbeth’s mindset changes and he eventually kills King Duncan in order to achieve kingship. This violent change in personality would not have been expected initially as he was introduced as a loyal servant of the King. Some readings of the play suggest that the idea of murdering the King was always in his heart and the sudden position change to Thane of Crawdor along with the witches’ prophecy simply brought up what was already in his heart. Another example of a complex character in Macbeth is Lady Macbeth. Lady Macbeth is initially shown as a woman with a man-like personality through her monologue where she states that she would rip a baby from her breast and dash its brains out if she needed to. In the play, she convinces Macbeth to perform the deed of killing King Duncan and after the deed is done, says how she would have done the deed herself if only the king did not look similar to her father. Later throughout the play, she keeps acting stranger as the guilt of the deed finally faces her. By the end of the play, she had committed suicide, unable to handle the deed she had assisted in performing. The complex characters in Shakespeare’s plays are one of the reasons that Shakespeare is still famous in the twenty-first century. In this time and day, Shakespeare is still a famous playwright whose plays are known to many. The reasons why include the diversity of interpretations of the various characters and meanings throughout the plays, the universally understandable emotions that the majority of the audience can relate to and the complexity of the many characters in the plays of Shakespeare. To this day, and in the future as well, his works will still be respected as the magnificent efforts they are. Bibliography Anon. , 2010. Shakespeares Enduring Nature. [Online] Available at: http://shakespeareanscribblings. wordpress. com/2010/08/30/shakespeares-enduring-nature/ [Accessed 30 April 2013]. Jamieson, L. , n. d. Macbeth Character Analysis. [Online] Available at: http://shakespeare. about. com/od/macbeth/a/Macbeth_Character_Analysis. htm [Accessed 30 April 2013]. Mabillard, A. , 2012. Amanda Mabillard. [Online] Available at: http://www. shakespeare-online. com/biography/whystudyshakespeare. html [Accessed 30 April 2013]. White, R. S. , 1995. Shakespeares Macbeth. In: Horizon studies in literature. South Melbourne: Sydney University Press, pp. 8-9.

Suffering In Crime And Punishment Essays (710 words) - Literature

Suffering in Crime and Punishment In the novel Crime and Punishment, by Fyodor Dostoevsky, suffering is an integral part of every character's role. However, the message that Dostoevsky wants to present with the main character, Raskolnikov, is not one of the Christian idea of salvation through suffering. Rather, it appears to me, as if the author never lets his main character suffer mentally throughout the novel, in relation to the crime, that is. His only pain seems to be physical sicknes. Raskolnikov commits a premeditated murder in a state of delirium. He ends up committing a second murder, which he never ever wanted to be responsible for. He kills Lizaveta, an exceedingly innocent person. But does the author ever remind us of the murder at any time in the novel again? Not in the physical sense of the crime itself. The reader doesn't hear about how heavily the murders are weighing on his heart, or how he is tormented by visions of the crime. He doesn't feel the least bit guilty about having committed the crime, only his pride's hurt. He doesn't mention the idea of the pain that might arise from recurrent visions of the crime. Raskolnikov never again recalls the massive amounts of blood everywhere, the look on Lizaveta's face when he brings down the axe on her head. These things clearly show that the crime isn't what might cause him suffering, or pain, it is something else. After Raskolnikov is sent off to Siberia, he doesn't feel remorseful. His feelings haven't changed about his crime, he feels bad at not being able to living up to his own ideas of greatness. He grows depressed only when he learns of his mother's death. Raskolnikov still hasn't found any reason to feel remorse for his crimes. He takes Siberia as his punishment, because of how annoying it is to go through all these formalities, and ridicularities that it entails. Yet, he actually feels more comfortable in Siberia than in his home in St. Petersburg. It's more comfortable, and has better living conditions than his own home. But he isn't free to do whatever he likes. But this does not contradict what I've said before. He doesn't view Siberia as suffering, but he does view it as punishment, because he would rather not have to go through seven years in his prison cell. His theory of the extraordinary, and the ordinary is something he has to follow and adhere to . His necessity to suffer is a part of his necessity to fulfill his unknown criteria to be extraordinary. His suffering, if any, is purely superficial. The idea of suffering has to be heartfelt and well-specified. Raskolnikov's suffering is never spoken about, mainly because there is none. Even Raskolnikov views his turning himself in as a blunder, because he couldn't take the heat. It is obvious that Raskolnikov never seems to be in a pit of despair from all the suffering he has to face from the effect of the murder. One might argue that Raskolnikov's illnesses arise from his guilt and remorse for the crimes, but that doesn't appear possible. Since the character never cites the murder for his sickness. In fact, Raskolnikov fell immediately sick after committing the murder. How could he struck by guilt five seconds after committing the murder when he hasn't even had a chance to see what events have just occurred? There is not a single instance when Raskolnikov, or the author for that matter, ever cite the dramatic effect of the murders on Raskolnikov's conscience for his terrible illness. Nothing in the novel would even imply that he feels remorse about committing the murders, it is just a silly idea that has been implanted in people's minds and the seed has spread too rapidly, without analization.It is incredibly obvious that all the so-called pain and suffering that Raskolnikov feels is untrue, silly, and backed by no support. It would be incredulously moronic to attempt to view it from another point of understanding. People are entitled to their own opinions but the beliefs of the at error majority should not overbear the beliefs of the correct minority. Acceptance of a theory without analysis of it